Buddhism and the Chinese Empire have a long-standing intensive relation. Buddhism is one of the main constituents of the mixed religious beliefs of the Chinese nation. It is practiced in this country for many centuries. Though the origin of Buddhism was in India, it traveled to the
Chinese empire at around 67 A.D. It was spread among the masses, while initially and episodically experiencing strong opposition from the older religious beliefs. Chinese Buddhism acquired its distinctive character, a blend of its traditional religions and the Buddhist ideologies obtained from India.
Studying the long history of Chinese Buddhism helps us understand the reasons behind its widespread acceptance in the nation and its influence upon society.
Indigenous religions of China before Buddhism’s arrival
China had its traditional religious practices before Buddhism set its foot there.
Spirit and Ancestor worship
The worship of natural elements as spirits was an old practice in the country. Mountains, rivers, forests, seas, stars, and fire were honored and worshipped by the people. Ancestor worship was and is an essential practice of the people of China.
Taoism/ Daoism
Taoism is a religious philosophy which was developed by Lao Tzu around the fifth century B.C. It considers ‘Tao’ as the source of all things. It is the impersonation of the whole world. All things emerge from Tao and go back into it.
Taoists believed in leading a life in accordance with nature.gives people extraordinary powers and also provide a way to rejoin with Tao after death. Some have criticized Taoism due to the use of so-called magic tricks, but the people of China still follow its fundamental philosophical viewpoint.
Confucianism
This philosophy proposed a hierarchy of deities to be worshipped by different sections of society. The hierarchy started with ‘Shang Ti’ at the top, which was worshipped by the king. Other officers of the king’s court worshipped gods who were subordinate to Shang Ti. The ordinary people had the local deities who were believed to be the lowest in the hierarchy of gods.
Arrival of Buddhism in China
It is generally believed that Buddhism in China dates back to the reign of Wu Ti of the western Han dynasty. It has been said that a tribe of the Yue-chi community had moved away from China and started ruling over north-western India.
Some of them had even reached up to the Ganges valley and set up their kingdoms, known as the “Samvijjis.” Chang-Kien was sent as a special envoy by the emperor to the kingdoms of the Yue-chi. He started the Silk Road, which led to the gradual growth of trade and cultural relations between the two regions, which began the transfer of Buddhist ideas into China.
It is said that Wu Ti got a golden image of Buddha from India, which he set up in his palace and worshipped.
Growth of Buddhism under the Han Dynasty
According to historians, Buddhism was officially recognized in China in 67 A.D. during the rule of Emperor Ming Ti. In the initial years of his rule. It is said, he saw the image of Buddha in his dream. The Buddha had a golden halo and was hovering over his palace. His vision profoundly moved the emperor, and one of his ministers, Fu-yih, told him about the growing influence of a magical saint by the same name in the West.
A mission was sent to India on the emperor’s orders, and they brought back with them many Buddhist texts. Two Indian priests Matanga and Gobharana also came with the army and carried many books- “A Life of Buddha” being an example.
The White Horse Monastery was built by Ming-Ti for the Indian monks. From then on, Ming Ti’s empire saw the arrival of hundreds of more monks and, thus, the establishment of a greater number of monasteries. A large number of sacred writings were compiled and then combined. The Chinese were themselves allowed to become monks in 335 A.D.
The Han dynasty declined in the third century B.C., and there was the rise of many local powers. The Chinese empire broke into many small units. There were also time-to-time protests from the followers of Taoism and Confucianism against Buddhism.
Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties
Buddhism flourished in the upcoming Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties and various forms of Buddhist literature, sculptures, pagodas, paintings developed during this period.
The influence of Buddhism on China’s culture
Literature
Buddhism affected the styles of essays, poems, and fiction. Chinese romanticism gained popularity during this period with the concepts of spiritual-beings and magic.
Architecture
Buddhist architecture mainly consists of temples and pagodas. The multistoried pagoda became popular during the Southern and Northern dynasties.
Sculpture
Buddhism had an immense influence on Chinese sculpture, and a large number of statues of the Buddha were made all over China. Precious gold and jade statues of Buddha were made during the Southern dynasties.
Painting
Many famous Buddhist painters lived during the Wei and Jin dynasties. Buddhist paintings were of two types- “portraits” (which were based on Buddha, supernatural beings, monks, etc.), and the “illustrations” (these showed stories of Buddha teaching and enlightening the people).
Music
The Buddhist music derived from India was mixed with royal and folk music and acquired a distinctive form in China.
Dynasties of Medieval China
Tang dynasty
Buddhism reached its peak during the initial phase of the Tang dynasty. There was increasing support from the emperor for the development of all religions in the empire. Many temples were set up, several Buddhist texts translated and compiled, and a greater spread of Buddhist ideologies and philosophy took place.
The beginning of the Tang dynasty was also the witness to the emergence of one of the greatest Chinese travelers – Hsuan-Tsang and I-sang. Hsuan-Tsang (596-664 A.D.) traveled extensively in India, and his writings on Buddhism are more Indian than Chinese in context. After Hsuan-Tsang’s death, I-sang, too, traveled to India. He visited Gaya, Nalanda, and collected hundreds of Sanskrit texts.
This early development was, however, followed by severe opposition to Buddhism in China. From the middle Tang period, Taoism became the most preferred and promoted religion with the support of the royal family. The reason behind the protest was that Buddhism came from a foreign land. Emperor Wuzong ordered the destruction of a large number of Buddhist monasteries and temples.
According to Beal (1884), it was 845 A.D. when the emperor ordered the destruction of 4,600 monasteries, the copper bells, and images in the temples were melted and converted into copper coins. Around 2,60,000 monks and nuns were told to return to secular life.
Sung dynasty
The Sung dynasty, which succeeded in the Tang dynasty, was founded by T’ai-tsu. He sent orders for protecting Buddhist monasteries. Great works of the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Tripitaka were done during his rule. Fa-Hien was a famous monk who came to China from the Nalanda monastery in Magadha. He contributed significantly to the re-writing of Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into the Chinese language.
Yuan dynasty
The Sung dynasty faced invasion by the Mongols, and the Mongol Yuan Empire replaced it following the accession of Kublai Khan to the throne in 1263 A.D. He had visited Tibet and was attracted to Tibetan Buddhism. Lamaism was declared the official religion of China under his reign.
Ming dynasty
Yuan rule was overturned by the Ming dynasty when Chu Yuan-ch’ang came to power in 1368 A.D. The translation work of the Buddhist Tripitaka continued during this period, and some original writings were also compiled. The Mahayana Sutra, a part of the Tripitaka, is the most respected among them.
Buddhism was disfavoured during the time of Shih-Tsung, who promoted Taoism in the country. But by the end of this extensive empire, Buddhism regained its earlier importance.
Ching/Qing dynasty
The Ching dynasty (1644-1911), one of the longest-ruling Chinese dynasties, was established by the Manchus. The first Manchu ruler of Peking, Shun-Chih, was a great follower of “Dhyana Buddhism.” In the later periods, China extended its authority over Tibet and Mongolia.
It was during this time that the positions of the Dalai Lama and the Pancham Lama were established in Tibet. The Dalai Lama was more powerful politically than the Pancham Lama and was highly regarded by the Manchu kings.
Table Showing Some Important Dynasties of China
| DYNASTY | PERIOD |
| Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms | 25-280 A.D. |
| Western Jin and Eastern Jin | 265-420 |
| Southern dynasty and Northern dynasty | 386-589 |
| Tang | 618-907 |
| Northern Sung and Southern Sung | 960-1279 |
| Yuan | 1271-1368 |
| Ming | 1368-1644 |
| Qing | 1644-1911 |
Source:- Zhongjian and Jian, 2014.
Schools and Sects of Buddhism
Mainly, two schools of Buddhism are recognized- the “Hinayana” school and the “Mahayana” school. The former school is prevalent in Sri Lanka and Myanmar, whereas China has a different Mahayana school. Hinayana believes that there is no such person or thing to be worshipped, and salvation can be achieved by only those who follow the path shown by Buddha.
It believes in traditional Buddhism, as found in the old scriptures. On the other hand, Mahayana equates Buddha with God, who is to be worshipped by everyone. It also does not stick to traditional practices and opens Buddhahood to all. Thus, it can be said in a way that Chinese Buddhism is more progressive and less traditional.
After the death of Buddha, Buddhism got divided into a number of sects. China also saw the growth of many sects. One of them was the ‘Pure Land’ or the Ching Tu, which was derived from India. It believes that anybody can enter the “Western Paradise” by continuously reciting the name of “Amitbha” (meaning “infinite light”- this signifies celestial Buddha in Mahayana school), which is the most popular sect in China. The Meditative sect or the Ch’an Men sect believes that everything in the world belongs to Buddha, the heart of the universe.
Everything except him is unreal. The T’ien T’ai sect was yet another vital sect that attempted to establish common Buddhist ideology by removing the discrepancy which existed due to different types of Buddhist practices. It said that all beings should attain salvation when they realize that the Buddha resides in their heart, as He loves all humans.
Buddhism at present
The modernization of China led to the Republic of China’s establishment in 1912, which lasted till 1949. Buddhism was expanded to other countries, and more monasteries came up. Since the setting up of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, Buddhism’s revival is being experienced.
Ancient religious sites are being restored, and new temples are being built. Though a majority of the Chinese population identifies themselves as non-religious or practicing a mix of ancestor worship, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, Buddhism’s influence on their culture and society remains apparent and highly significant.
Image Credits
Featured Image : Buddhism – 4144132
Kolkata, India
M.Sc Geography
